Abstract

The fundamental cause of cancer is an accumulation of genetic and genomic mutations that disrupt normal cellular homeostasis over time. Extensive research has established that mutations in oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and DNA repair genes, together with dysregulation of apoptotic pathways, play pivotal roles in tumor initiation, progression, and metastasis. These genetic abnormalities alter critical cellular processes, including cell proliferation, genomic stability, DNA damage response, and programmed cell death, thereby facilitating malignant transformation and disease progression. This review highlights the molecular mechanisms underlying the genetic determinants of cancer, emphasizing the contribution of inherited and acquired genetic alterations to carcinogenesis. It also discusses the interplay between diverse genetic factors and their impact on tumor heterogeneity. A comprehensive understanding of the genetic basis of cancer is essential for developing more effective therapeutic interventions and improving clinical outcomes in patients with diverse malignancies.